CAPITAL: Ottawa.

FLAG: The national flag, adopted in 1964, consists of a red maple leaf on a white field, flanked by a red vertical field on each end.

ANTHEM: Since 1 July 1980, O Canada has been the official anthem.

MONETARY UNIT: The Canadian dollar (c$) is a paper currency of 100 cents. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 cents, 1 dollar and 2 dollars, and notes of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 1,000 Canadian dollars. Silver coins of 5 and 10 dollars, commemorating the Olympics, were issued during 1973-76. c$1 = us$0.74571 (or us$1 = c$1.341). US currency is usually accepted, especially in major cities and along the border.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Good Friday; Easter Monday; Victoria Day, the Monday preceding 25 May; Canada Day, 1 July; Labor Day, 1st Monday in September; Thanksgiving Day, 2d Monday in October; Remembrance Day, 11 November; Christmas Day, 25 December; Boxing Day, 26 December. Other holidays are observed in some provinces.

TIME: Newfoundland, 8:30 am = noon GMT; New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Quebec, 8 am = noon GMT; Ontario east of 90° and western Quebec, 7 am = noon GMT; western Ontario and Manitoba, 6 am = noon GMT; Alberta and Saskatchewan, 5 am = noon GMT; British Columbia and Yukon Territory, 4 am = noon GMT.

Source Database: Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations
Table of Contents
AGRICULTURE | ARMED FORCES | CLIMATE | DOMESTICATED ANIMALS | ECONOMY | EDUCATION | ENERGY AND POWER | ENVIRONMENT | ETHNIC GROUPS | FAMOUS CANADIANS | FISHING | FORESTRY | FURTHER READINGS | GOVERNMENT | HEALTH | HISTORY | HOUSING | INCOME | INDUSTRY | JUDICIAL SYSTEM | LABOR | LANGUAGES | LOCATION AND SIZE | MEDIA | MIGRATION | MINING | PLANTS AND ANIMALS | POLITICAL PARTIES | POPULATION | RELIGIONS | SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT | SOURCE CITATION | TOPOGRAPHY | TOURISM AND RECREATION | TRANSPORTATION | VIEW MULTIMEDIA FILE(S)

LOCATION AND SIZE

Canada consists of all of the North American continent north of the United States, except Alaska and the small French islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. Its total land area of 10 million square kilometers (3.9 million square miles) makes it slightly larger than China and the United States. The country's total boundary length is 252,684 kilometers (157,018 miles). Canada's capital city, Ottawa, is located in the southeastern part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Canada's topography is dominated by the Canadian Shield, an area of Precambrian rocks surrounding the Hudson Bay and covering half the country. East of the Shield is the Maritime area, separated from the rest of Canada by low mountain ranges, and including the island of Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island. South and southeast of the Shield are the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence lowlands, a fertile plain in the triangle bounded by the St. Lawrence River, Lake Ontario, and Georgian Bay.

West of the Shield are the farmlands and ranching areas of the great central plains. Toward the north of this section is a series of rich mining areas, and still farther north is the Mackenzie lowland, traversed (crossed) by many lakes and rivers. The westernmost region of Canada, extending from western Alberta to the Pacific Ocean, includes the Rocky Mountains, a plateau region, the coastal mountain range, and an inner sea passage separating the outer island groups from the fjord-lined (narrow sea inlet) coast. Mt. Logan, the highest peak in Canada, in the St. Elias Range near the Alaska border, is 5,951 meters (19,524 feet) high. The Arctic islands constitute a large group extending north of the Canadian mainland to within 885 kilometers (550 miles) of the North Pole. They vary greatly in size and topography, with mountains, plateaus, fjords, and low coastal plains.

The Nelson-Saskatchewan, Churchill, Severn, and Albany rivers flow into Hudson Bay. The 4,241-kilometer (2,635-mile) Mackenzie River drains an area of almost 2.6 million square kilometers (1 million square miles) into the Arctic Ocean. The Great Lakes drain into the broad St. Lawrence River, which flows into the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

GEOGRAPHIC PROFILE

Arable land: Land used for temporary crops, like meadows for mowing or pasture, gardens, and greenhouses. Permanent crops: Land cultivated with crops that occupy its use for long periods, such as cocoa, coffee, rubber, fruit and nut orchards, and vineyards. Permanent pastures: Land used permanently for forage crops. Forests: Land containing stands of trees. Other: Any land not specified, including built-on areas, roads, and barren land.

The measurements for precipitation and average temperature were taken at weather stations closest to the country's largest city. Precipitation and average temperature can vary significantly within a country, due to factors such as latitude, altitude, coastal proximity, and wind patterns.

CLIMATE

Most of northern Canada has subarctic or arctic climates, with long cold winters lasting 8 to 11 months, short sunny summers, and little precipitation. In contrast, the populated south has a variety of climates.

Cool summers and mild winters prevail along the Pacific coast of British Columbia. Mean temperatures range from about 4°c (39°f) in January to 16°c (61°f) in July, the smallest range in the country. In Ontario and Quebec, especially near the Great Lakes and along the St. Lawrence River, the climate is less severe than in western Canada.

The northwest and the prairies are the driest areas. The windward mountain slopes are exceptionally wet; the protected slopes are very dry. Thus, the west coast gets about 150-300 centimeters (60-120 inches) of rain annually; the central prairie area, less than 50 centimeters (20 inches); the flat area east of Winnipeg, 50-100 centimeters (20-40 inches); and the Maritime provinces, 115-150 centimeters (45-60 inches). The annual average number of days of precipitation ranges from 252 along coastal British Columbia, to 100 in the interior of the province.

PLANTS AND ANIMALS

A great range of plant and animal life characterizes the vast area of Canada, with its varied geographic and climatic zones. The flora of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence region include white pine, sugar and red maples, and beech trees. Coniferous trees (evergreens) abound in the Maritime region, and black spruce in the eastern Laurentian zone.

From the prairie grassland to the Arctic tundra there are aspen, bur oak, cottonwood, and other deciduous (those that shed leaves seasonally) trees. Conifers dominate the northern section. Many types of grasses grow on the interior plains. The wet area along the west coast is famous for its tall, hard conifers. In the Rocky Mountain area are alpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and lodgepole pine. The great Arctic region is covered with low-growing grasses, mosses, and bushes.

Animals range from deer, black bear, and opossum in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence region to moose, caribou, and timber wolf in the northern forests, and grizzly bear, mountain goat, and moose in the Rocky Mountain area. Birds include the robin, wood thrush, woodpecker, northern Pigmy-owl, band-tailed pigeon, snowy owl, ptarmigan, and arctic tern. Walrus, seals, and whales inhabit Canada's coastal waters.

ENVIRONMENT

Among Canada's most pressing environmental problems is acid rain, which poses a threat to natural resources in about 2.6 million square kilometers (1 million square miles) of eastern Canada. Acid rain has affected 150,000 lakes in total throughout Canada. About half the acid rain comes from emissions from Canadian smokestacks, but Canada has blamed United States industry for 75% of Ontario pollution.

Canada's rivers have been polluted by agriculture and industry. As of 1994, 50% of Canada's coastal shellfish areas are closed because of dangerous pollutant levels. Canada ranks twelfth in the world for hydrocarbon emissions with a total of 2,486.1 metric tons.

Canada has more than 90 bird sanctuaries and 44 National Wildlife Areas, including reserves in the western Arctic to protect waterfowl nesting grounds. The annual Newfoundland seal hunt, producing seals for pelts and meat, drew the anger of environmentalists, chiefly because of the practice of clubbing baby seals to death (adult seals are shot). In 1987, Canada banned the offshore hunting of baby seals, as well as blueback hooded seals.

In 1995, endangered species in Canada included the wood bison, sea otter, right whale, Acadian whitefish, spotted owl, leatherback turtle, American peregrine falcon, whooping crane, and the southern bald eagle. As of 1991, the brown bear, the gray wolf, and the California Condor were also endangered. Of a total of 197 mammals, 5 are endangered, as are 6 bird species. Out of a total of 3,220 plant species nationwide, 13 are endangered.

HISTORY

The first inhabitants of what is now Canada were the ancient ancestors of the Inuit, who probably entered the region between 15,000 and 10,000 bc. Although most Inuit lived near the coast, some followed the caribou herds to the interior and developed a culture based on hunting and inland fishing.

The first recorded arrival of Europeans was in 1497 by the Italian-born John Cabot, who led an English expedition to the shore of a "new found land" (Newfoundland) and claimed the area in the name of Henry VII. In 1534, the French, under Jacques Cartier, claimed the Gaspé Peninsula and discovered the St. Lawrence River the following year.

By 1604, the first permanent French colony, Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia), had been founded. Four years later, Samuel de Champlain established the town of Quebec. With the discovery of the Great Lakes, missionaries and fur traders arrived, and an enormous French territory was established. Between 1608 and 1756, about 10,000 French settlers arrived in Canada. In 1663, New France became a royal province of the French crown.

The movement of exploration, discovery, commercial exploitation, and missionary activity which had begun with the coming of Champlain, was extended by such men as Jacques Marquette, reaching its climax in the last three decades of the seventeenth century. At that time, French trade and empire stretched north to the shores of Hudson Bay, west to the head of the Great Lakes, and south to the Gulf of Mexico. Meanwhile, a British enterprise, the Hudson's Bay Company, founded in 1670, began to compete for the fur trade.

The European wars between England and France were paralleled in North America by a series of French and Indian wars. The imperial contest ended after British troops, commanded by James Wolfe, defeated Marquis Louis Joseph de Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham, bringing the fall of Quebec in 1759. The French army surrendered at Montreal in 1760, and the Treaty of Paris in 1763 established British rule over what had been New France.

The Quebec Act of 1774 instituted the separateness of French-speaking Canada that has become a distinctive feature of the country. It also secured the loyalty of the French clergy and aristocracy to the British crown during the American Revolution. Some 40,000 Loyalists from the colonies fled in revolt northward to eastern Canada.

US-CANADA BORDER ESTABLISHED

Alexander Mackenzie reached the Arctic Ocean in 1789 and journeyed to the Pacific Ocean in 1793. British mariners secured for Britain a firm hold on what is now British Columbia. The War of 1812, in which United States forces attempting to invade Canada were repulsed by Canadian and British soldiers, did not change either the general situation or the United States-Canadian boundary. In 1846, the United States-Canadian border in the west was resolved at 49°n, and since then, except for minor disputes, the long border has been a line of peace.

The movement for Canadian confederation--political union of the colonies--was spurred in the 1860s by the need for common defense and the desire for a common government to sponsor railroads and other transportation. In 1864 Upper Canada (present-day Ontario) and Lower Canada (Quebec) were united under a common dominion (authority) government.

In 1867, the British North America Act created a larger dominion that was a confederation of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the two provinces of Canada. Since the name Canada was chosen for the entire country, Lower Canada and Upper Canada assumed their present-day names of Quebec and Ontario.

In 1870, the province of Manitoba was established and admitted to the confederation, and the Northwest Territories were transferred to the federal government. British Columbia, on the Pacific shore, joined the confederation in 1871, and Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.

By 1900, immigration to the western provinces had risen swiftly, and the prairie agricultural empire bloomed. Large-scale development of mines and of hydroelectric resources helped spur the growth of industry and urbanization. Alberta and Saskatchewan were made provinces in 1905.

In 1921, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec were greatly enlarged to take in all territory west of Hudson Bay and south of 60°n and all territory east of Ungava Bay. In February 1931, Norway formally recognized the Canadian title to the Sverdrup group of Arctic islands (now the Queen Elizabeth Islands). Newfoundland remained apart from the confederation until after World War II; it became Canada's tenth province in March 1949.

More than 600,000 Canadians served with the Allies in World War I (1914-18), and over 60,000 were killed. The war contributions of Canada and other dominions helped bring about the declaration of equality of the members of the British Commonwealth in the Statute of Westminster of 1931. After the war, the development of air transportation and roads helped weld Canada together, and the nation had sufficient strength to withstand the depression that began in 1929, and the droughts that brought ruin to wheat fields.

Canada was vitally important again in World War II (1939-45). More than one million Canadians took part in the Allied war effort, and over 32,000 were killed. The nation emerged from the war with enhanced prestige, actively concerned with world affairs and fully committed to the Atlantic alliance.

SEPARATISM SURFACES IN QUEBEC

Domestically, a far-reaching postwar development was the resurgence in the 1960s of French Canadian separatism. Although administrative reforms--including the establishment of French as Quebec's official language in 1974--helped meet the demands of cultural nationalists, separatism continued to be an important force in Canadian politics. In the 1976 provincial elections, the separatist Parti Québécois came to power in Quebec, and its leader, Premier René Lévesque, proposed that Quebec become politically independent from Canada. However, his proposal was defeated, 59.5% to 40.5%, in a 1980 referendum.

Meanwhile, other provinces had their own grievances, especially over oil revenues. The failure of Newfoundland and the federal government to agree on development and revenue sharing stalled the exploitation of the vast Hibernia offshore oil and gas field in the early 1980s.

In the 1980s, Liberal Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau worked for "patriation" of the constitution (revoking the British North America Act so that Canada could reclaim authority over its own constitution from the United Kingdom). The Constitution Act, passed in December 1981 and proclaimed by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 April 1982, thus replaced the British North America Act as the basic document of Canadian government. However, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Manitoba failed to ratify it due to inter-provincial tensions and other problems.

Canada joined with the United States and Mexico to negotiate the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which was built upon the United States-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA). The three nations came to an agreement in August 1992 and signed the text on 17 December 1992. NAFTA, which seeks to create a single common market of 370 million consumers, was implemented in 1994.

NUNAVIT TERRITORY CREATED

In 1992, the Inuit approved an agreement with the federal government of Canada to create a homeland by dividing the Northwest Territories in half in 1999. This would create a new semi-autonomous region called Nunavit Territory. In 1998 the federal government signed a treaty with the Nisga'a tribe of British Columbia, marking the first time in Canada's history that a tribe was given the right to govern itself.

The province of Quebec has also historically claimed special status within the federal system and has several times threatened to secede from the union. In 1995, secession was put to a referendum. In the end, voters decided by the smallest of margins (a majority of less than one percent) to remain a part of Canada. It is expected that another referendum will be held soon. In August 1998, Canada's supreme court ruled that Quebec does not have the right to secede on its own, and that the rest of Canada would also have a voice if Quebec voted to secede.

MIGRATION

Of a total of 252,042 immigrants in 1993, those from Asia numbered 134,532; Europe accounted for 50,050; Africa, 19,033; the Caribbean, 19,028; the United States, 6,565; and South America, 11,327. Emigration is mainly to the United States. In 1990 there were 871,000 Canadian-born people living in the US.

Canada is a major source of asylum for persecuted refugees. In 1996, 9,540 refugee claim applicants were accepted by Canada's Immigration and Refugee Board. In addition, Canada has an annual program in which refugees are taken directly from other countries due to dire circumstances. In 1996, this program allowed 7,700 refugees to settle in the country. Of these, 4,400 were from Croatia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Yugoslavia.

ARMED FORCES

All service in the armed forces is voluntary. Total forces as of 1995 were 70,500; there were 23,350 reserves. The Land Forces had 21,500 troops in 1995; the Maritime Forces had 9,500; and the air force had a strength of 16,400, with eight fighter squadrons (some 300 aircraft).

In 1993, Canadian armed forces were deployed in Cyprus, Syria, Israel, the Sinai, Cambodia, Croatia, Iraq, and Angola, as well as elsewhere in Africa on peacekeeping operations. Defense expenditures in 1995 totaled $9 billion, or 1.3% of gross domestic product (GDP). In 1994, Canada exported arms worth $628 million.

The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) is a civil force maintained by the federal government, originally to police federal territories. However, all the provinces except Ontario and Quebec, which have their own police forces, have entered into contracts with the "mounties" to enforce provincial laws (under the direction of the provincial authorities).

GOVERNMENT

Canada is a federation of ten provinces and two northern territories. On 1 April 1999, the Northwest Territories was scheduled to split into two separate territories, creating a total of three Canadian territories. In 1982 the British North America Act of 1867 (which effectively served, together with a series of subsequent British statutes, as Canada's constitution) was superseded by the Constitution Act (or Canada Act). Its principal innovations are the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the provision for amendment.

Under the Constitution Act, the British sovereign remains sovereign of Canada and head of state; for the most part, the personal participation of Queen Elizabeth II in the function of the crown for Canada is reserved for such occasions as a royal visit. The queen's personal representative in the federal government is the governor-general, appointed by the crown on the advice of the prime minister of Canada.

The federal Parliament is made up of the House of Commons and the Senate. A new House of Commons, with 301 members as of 1997, is elected at least once every five years. The leader of the party that wins the largest number of seats in a House of Commons becomes prime minister and is asked to form the government. The governor-in-council (cabinet) is chosen by the prime minister.

The 104 members of the Senate, or upper house, are appointed for life, or until age 75, by the governor-general on the nomination of the prime minister, with equality of representation for regional divisions. In October 1992, Canadian voters declined a constitutional amendment that would have made the Senate an elected body.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

Civil and criminal courts exist on county, district, and superior levels. The Supreme Court in Ottawa has appeals, civil, and criminal jurisdiction throughout Canada; its chief justice and eight associate justices are appointed by the governor-general. The Federal Court of Canada (formerly the Exchequer Court) hears cases having to do with taxation, claims involving the federal government, copyrights, and admiralty (maritime) law. The death penalty in Canada was abolished in 1976; that decision was upheld in a vote by the House of Commons in June 1987.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Throughout most of the 20th century, national unity has been the primary aim of every Canadian government: leaders of both the English-speaking majority and the French-speaking minority have cooperated to develop a united Canada to which differences arising from national origin were subordinate (of an inferior rank). Canadian nationalism has been fueled partially by reaction against being too closely identified with either the United Kingdom or the United States. In the 1970s, this unity was challenged by a growing demand for French Canadian autonomy.

The Liberal Party (LP), which held office from 1935 to 1957 and again (except for part of 1979) from 1968 to 1984, traditionally emphasized trade and cultural relationships with the United States, while its principal rival, the Progressive Conservative Party (PC), which held power from 1957 to 1968, from May to December 1979, stresses Canada's relationships with the United Kingdom. In economic policy, the Liberals generally champion free trade, while the Conservatives favor a degree of government protection.

The New Democratic Party (NDP) is a labor-oriented party formed in 1961 by the merger of The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) and the Canadian Labour Congress.

Brian Mulroney became prime minister following a landslide PC victory in the September 1984 elections. In 1993, the PC fell from power, primarily due to one of the worst Canadian recessions in nearly 60 years and the failure of the PC government to implement constitutional reforms.

Brian Mulroney resigned, and was succeeded by Kim Campbell, Canada's first woman prime minister. The Liberal party soundly defeated the PC in the October 1993 election and named Jean Chrétien as the new prime minister. Chrétien called for new elections in 1997, which resulted in the Liberal Party losing 22 seats. A new party, The Reform Party, led by Robert Manning, won most of the seats the Liberals lost.

TOURISM AND RECREATION

From the polar ice cap to the mountains, fjords, and rainforests of the west coast, Canada offers a remarkable range of scenic wonders. Among the most spectacular parks are the Kluane National Park in the Yukon Territory and the Banff (with Lake Louise) and Jasper national parks in the mountains of Alberta. Norse artifacts and reconstructed dwellings can be viewed at the excavation of L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland.

Other attractions include Dinosaur Park in Alberta's Red Deer Badlands; the Cabot Trail in Nova Scotia; and the Laurentians and the Gaspé Peninsula in Quebec. The arts and crafts of the Dene Indians and the Inuit may be seen in cooperative workshops in the Northwest Territories.

Quebec City is the only walled city in North America. Montreal, the second-largest French-speaking city in the world (after Paris), is famous for its fine French cuisine, its vast underground shopping network, and its excellent subway system. Toronto is known for commerce, culture, modern architecture, and an outstanding zoo. One of the world's foremost summer theatrical events is the Shakespeare Festival at Stratford, Ontario.

Fishing and hunting attract many sportsmen to Canada, and ice hockey attracts many sports fans, particularly to the Forum in Montreal. Major league baseball teams play in Montreal and Toronto. In 1992, the Toronto major league baseball team, the Blue Jays, became the first non-American team to both play in and win the World Series. Toronto again won the World Series in 1993.

In 1994, Canada was the world's twelfth most popular tourist destination. In that year, 16 million tourists arrived from abroad, 80% of them from the United States and 12% from Europe. Gross receipts from tourism were us$6.29 billion.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Welfare needs are met by federal, provincial, and municipal governments as well as by voluntary agencies. Federal programs include family allowances, old age security, and earning-related disability and survivors' pensions. In general, families with children under 16 (and youths aged 16 or 17 who attend school full time), regardless of means, are eligible for small monthly allowances, which decline as family income increases.

Persons aged 65 and over receive monthly pensions, supplemented in some provinces on a means-test basis. Under federal-provincial programs, monthly allowances are paid to needy persons aged 65 to 69, and to needy persons aged 18 or over who are blind or totally and permanently disabled.

The provinces provide services of their own, including allowances to needy mothers and their dependent children, widows, and mothers whose husbands have deserted them, are disabled, or are in mental hospitals. Municipalities, provinces, and voluntary agencies finance child welfare services. Homes for the aged are generally maintained by municipalities and voluntary organizations. Since 1941, an unemployment insurance system and a nationwide free employment service have been in operation.

Liberalization of divorce and abortion laws since the 1960s, coupled with the increased participation of women in the labor force, have brought significant changes to Canadian family life. Since 1968, the crude divorce rate (per 100,000 population) has risen by more than 400%.

Women participate fully in the Canadian labor force, including business and the professions, although government reports show that their average earnings are still less than those of men. A report published in 1995 showed that women on average earn 72 cents for each dollar earned by men.

ETHNIC GROUPS

According to the 1991 census, 83.5% of the population was Canadian-born. Persons wholly or partially of British origin (including Irish) made up 44.6% of the total population in 1991; those of total or partial French origin (centered mainly in Quebec, where they constitute 80% of the population), 31.1%. Other European groups included Germans (3.3%), Italians (2.8%), Ukrainians (1.5%), Dutch (1.3%), and Poles (1%). Nearly 28.9% of the total population claimed multiple ethnic origin.

Amerindians (native people) numbered 365,375 (1.4%) in 1991 and formed the sixth-largest ethnic group. There were 604 Indian bands living on 2,364 reserves. These Indians were classified into 10 major groups by language. There were also 75,150 métis, of mixed European and Indian descent.

Most of the 30,090 Inuit ( Eskimos) live in the Northwest Territories, with smaller numbers in northern Quebec and northern Newfoundland (Labrador).

LANGUAGES

English and French are the official languages of Canada and have equal status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all governmental institutions. The federal constitution also gives English and French speakers the right to publicly funded education in their own language at the primary and secondary levels, wherever the number of children justifies it.

The constitution provides for the use of both English and French in the legislature and courts of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Manitoba. Although there are no similar constitutional rights in Ontario and Saskatchewan, these provinces have made English and French the official languages of the courts. In 1984, the Northwest Territories Council adopted an ordinance providing for the use of aboriginal languages and establishing English and French as official languages.

Although Canada is frequently referred to as a bilingual country, less that 20% of the people were able to speak both English and French. In Quebec, 82.3% of the people spoke French as a native language in 1991; in the other provinces, most of the people spoke only English.

Native speakers of Italian numbered 510,980; German, 466,240; Chinese, 498,845; Ukrainian, 187,015; Portuguese, 212,090; and Polish, 189,815. There were 73,870 native speakers of Cree, the most common Indian language; there are at least 58 different Indian languages and dialects.

RELIGIONS

In 1990, the principal religious denominations and their memberships in Canada were the Roman Catholic Church, 11.6 million; United Church of Canada, 2.0 million; Anglican Church of Canada, 848,256; Presbyterian Church of Canada, 245,883; Lutherans, 78,566; and Baptists, 201,218. Also represented were Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Mennonite, Pentecostal, and other groups. The estimated Jewish population in 1990 was 310,000.

TRANSPORTATION

In spite of the rapid growth of road, air, and pipeline services since 1945, railways are still important because they can supply all-weather transportation in large volume over continental distances. There were 70,176 kilometers (43,605 miles) of railways in 1991. About 90% of the railway facilities are operated by two great continental systems, the government-owned Canadian National Railways (CNR), which was privatized in 1995, and the privately-owned Canadian Pacific Ltd. (CP), with 34,016 kilometers (21,137 miles). CNR and CP also maintain steamships and ferries, nationwide telegraph services, highway transport services, and hotel chains.

Because of difficult winter weather conditions, road maintenance is a continual and expensive task. There are about 849,404 kilometers (527,794 miles) of roads, including 291,291 kilometers (184,727 miles) of paved highway. Canada ranks next to the United States in per capita use of motor transport, with one passenger car for every 2 persons. Motor vehicles in use in 1995 totaled 16.7 million, including 13.2 million passenger cars, 3.5 million trucks, and 64,208 buses. A bridge from Prince Edward Island to the mainland was completed in 1997.

Canada makes heavy use of water transport in domestic as well as foreign commerce. The major part of Canada's merchant fleet--573,089 gross registered tons in 1995--consists of tankers. Montreal is Canada's largest port and the world's largest grain port. Other well-equipped ports are Toronto, Hamilton, Port Arthur, and Fort William on the Great Lakes, and Vancouver on the Pacific Coast.

The St. Lawrence Seaway and Power Project, constructed jointly by Canada and the United States provides an 8-meter (27-feet) navigation channel from Montreal to Lake Superior. The Athabasca and Slave rivers and the Mackenzie, into which they flow, provide an inland, seasonal water transportation system from Alberta to the Arctic Ocean. The Yukon River is also navigable.

International air service is provided by government-owned Air Canada and Canadian Airlines. Regional service is provided by some 570 smaller carriers. Canada has 1,138 airports, including 816 with permanent runways. Canadian airlines transported 20.3 million passengers in 1995.

FAMOUS CANADIANS

EDUCATION

Practically the entire adult population is literate. The age limits of compulsory school attendance are roughly from age 6 to age 15. Primary school lasts for eight years and secondary or high school another three to five years. In 1993, primary schools numbered 12,344. There were 158,059 teachers and 2.4 million students in primary schools. The same year, secondary schools had 168,027 teachers and 2.5 million students.

Each province is responsible for its own system of education. While the systems differ in some details, the general plan is the same for all provinces except Quebec, which has two parallel systems: one mainly for Roman Catholics and speakers of French, the other primarily for non-Catholics and speakers of English.

During 1996 there were 69 degree-granting colleges and universities in Canada. In 1993, full-time enrollment in all higher level institutions, colleges and universities was 2.0 million.

Among the oldest Canadian institutions of higher education are the Collège des Jésuites in Quebec City, founded in 1635; the Collège St. Boniface in Manitoba (1827); the University of Ottawa (1848); and St. Joseph's University in New Brunswick (1864). Most university-level instruction is conducted in English. Two private universities on the Scottish model are Dalhousie University in Halifax (1818), and McGill University in Montreal (1821). The first state-supported institution was King's College at York in Upper Canada, which became the University of Toronto, the largest and one of the most distinguished of Canadian institutions.

HEALTH

Canada adopted a national health insurance scheme in 1971. It is administered regionally, with each province running a public insurance plan and the government contributing about 40% of the cost. Access to health care and cost containment are good, but there are strains on the budget, increased by the demands of an aging population.

Diseases of the heart and arteries account for more than 40% of all deaths, and cancer accounts for just under one-third; the proportion of deaths from causes related to old age is rising. Accidents are the leading cause of death in childhood and among young adult males, and rank high for other population groups. Life expectancy is estimated at 79 years.

In 1998 the government was involved in a lawsuit by thousands of Canadians who had were infected with HIV and hepatitis C due to transfusions of tainted blood supplied by the Red Cross. The blood recipients were infected during the 1980s, when a screening test used in the United States was ignored in Canada.

HOUSING

There were slightly more than 10 million occupied private dwellings in Canada in 1991. Housing starts were estimated at just over 156,000 during 1991, a 14% drop from 1990 due to the recession. Single homes are the most common type of dwelling, although their relative numbers have gradually fallen in favor of multiple dwellings.

POPULATION

In 1998, the population was estimated at 30.7 million. A population of 32.9 million was forecasted for the year 2005.

The average population density in 1998 was 3 per square kilometer (8 per square mile). The population is unevenly distributed, ranging from 0.02 per square kilometer (0.045 per square mile) in the Northwest Territories, to 22.8 per square kilometer (59 per square mile) on Prince Edward Island. Nearly two-thirds of the people live within 160 kilometers (100 miles) of the United States boundary. About 77% of the population lives in urban areas.

The Toronto metropolitan area had a population of 4.3 million in 1995; Montreal, 3.3 million. Other large metropolitan areas are Vancouver, 1.8 million; Ottawa-Hull (Ottawa is the federal capital), 1.0 million; Edmonton, 887,000; Calgary, 829,000; Winnipeg, 652,354; and Quebec City, 645,550.

MEDIA

The ten public and private companies in Telecom Canada provide a major share of the nation's telecommunications services, including all long-distance service, and link regional networks across Canada. There were 16.5 million telephones in Canada in 1995.

The publicly owned Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) provides the national broadcasting service in Canada. Privately owned local stations form part of the networks and provide alternative programs. As of 1995, there were 900 AM broadcasting stations, 29 FM stations, and 70 television stations. In the same year there were 28.2 million radios and 17.5 million television sets. As of May 1997, radio and television services reached 99% of Canadian homes.

In 1995 there were 106 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 5.8 million. Although some newspapers in Montreal, Quebec, Toronto, Winnipeg, and Vancouver have more than local influence, most circulate only on a regional basis and have a limited number of readers. Rural areas are served by some 2,000 monthly and weekly publications. There are many consumer magazines, but only Maclean's is truly national.

Canada's leading newspapers (with their 1995 daily circulations) include the following: Toronto Star (523,400); Globe and Mail (330,000); Le Journal de Montréal (300,000); Toronto Sun (228,731); Vancouver Sun (220,000); and La Presse (195,000).

AGRICULTURE

Until the beginning of the 1900s, agriculture was the most common Canadian occupation. Since then, however, the farm population has been shrinking. Even in Saskatchewan, the province with the highest proportion of farmers, farm families account for no more than 25% of the total population. For Canada as a whole, agriculture engaged only 2.5% of the economically active population in 1995.

However, Canada is still one of the major food-exporting countries of the world. Farm production continues to increase, as do the size of holdings, crop quantity, quality and variety, and cash income. Canada generates about c$12.7 billion in cash farm receipts annually.

More than 90% of Canada's cultivated area is in the three prairie provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. The trend is toward fewer and larger farms, increased use of machinery, and more specialization.

The estimated output of principal field crops in 1996 (in 1,000 tons) was wheat, 30,500; barley, 15,900; corn, 7,200; rapeseed, 5,040; and oats, 4,375.

In 1996, Canada's grain exports totaled 21.6 million tons, third after the United States and France. The Canadian International Development Agency provided c$312.9 million in exported food in 1995.

DOMESTICATED ANIMALS

Canada traditionally exports livestock products, producing more than the domestic market can use. Animal production (livestock, dairy products, and eggs) now brings in about half of total farm cash income.

Livestock on farms in 1995 numbered 13.4 million head of cattle; 12.0 million pigs and hogs; 620,000 sheep and lambs; and 132 million hens and chickens. In 1995, livestock slaughtered included 3.3 million head of cattle, and calves, 15.9 million hogs, and 512,000 sheep. Chicken and turkey production totaled 874,000 tons. Milk production in 1996 was 8 million tons; butter production amounted to about 90,000 tons, and cheese production to 275,000 tons. Most dairy products are consumed within Canada.

ENERGY AND POWER

Canada's fossil fuels and hydroelectric resources are abundant. Coal production reached 82.6 million metric tons in 1995.

Output of crude oil in 1995 was 110.9 million tons, at a rate of 2.4 million barrels per day. Natural gas production rose to 145.8 billion cubic meters (190.7 billion cubic yards) in 1995, third in the world after Russia and the United States. In 1996, proved crude oil reserves were estimated at 7.2 billion barrels, (900 million tons), and natural gas reserves at more than 1.9 trillion cubic feet (53.8 billion cubic meters) representing 1.4% of the world's total. As of 1996, Canada had a 8.5% stake in the massive $6.3 billion Hibernia oil project off the coast of Newfoundland, which began production in late 1997.

Canada ranks sixth in the production of electric power in the world and first in the production of hydroelectricity. In 1991, Canada's total net installed capacity reached 104.6 million kilowatts. Total electric power generation in Canada in 1994 was 537,652 million kilowatt hours; 61% of it was hydroelectric, 21% was conventional thermal, and 19% was nuclear. Net exports of electricity amounted to 50,218 kilowatt hours in 1994.

FISHING

With a coastline of nearly 29,000 kilometers (18,000 miles) and a lake-and-river system containing more than half the world's fresh water, Canada ranks among the world's major fish producers. In 1991 Canada was the world's third-leading exporter of fresh, chilled, and frozen fish. Exports of dried, salted, and smoked fish in 1991 amounted to $338.5 million, more than any other nation except Norway.

More than one billion pounds of cod, haddock, halibut, pollock, and other fish are caught every year along the Atlantic in deep-sea and shore operations.Vast numbers of lobsters and herring are caught in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Bay of Fundy. Salmon, the specialty of the Pacific fisheries, is canned for export and constitutes the most valuable item of Canadian fish production. Also exported are fresh halibut and canned and processed herring. Other important export items are whitefish, lake trout, pickerel, and other freshwater fish caught in the Great Lakes and some of the larger inland lakes. Feed and fertilizer are important by-products. Canadian total fish and seafood landings in 1995 were estimated at 839,000 tons. Because of the lucrative nature of the salmon catch in the Pacific Northwest, Canada and the United States have been frequent adversaries in disputes over allowable catches and border drawings.

Export sales in 1995 amounted to c$2.9 billion. The United States imported more than 59% of Canada's fish product exports in 1995. Japan was the second most important export market for Canadian fish that year.

The government protects and develops the resources of both ocean and inland waters and helps expand the domestic market for fish.

FORESTRY

In 1991, forests covered 417.6 million hectares (1.0 billion acres) or 42% of Canada's total land area. Canada ranks as the third-largest producer of coniferous (evergreens) wood products (after the United States and Russia), and is the leading supplier of softwood products for export.

Chief forest products in eastern Canada are pulp and paper products, especially newsprint, three-fourths of which goes to the United States. In the west, the chief product is sawn timber. In 1995, an estimated 185 million cubic meters (242 million cubic yards) of roundwood was harvested. In addition, 9.3 million tons of newsprint were produced, accounting for 26% of the world's production. Exports of newsprint were valued at $6 billion, with 75% going to the United States.

MINING

Some 52 minerals are currently being commercially produced in Canada. Canada is the world's largest producer of mine zinc and uranium and is among the leaders in silver, nickel, aluminum (from imported bauxite), potash, gold, copper, lead, salt, sulfur, and nitrogen in ammonia. Yet the country has only just begun to fully develop many of its most important mineral resources. Beginning in 1981, large new deposits of gold ore were discovered at Hemlo, Ontario, north of Lake Superior; by 1991, more than 50% of Ontario's gold production came from the three mines in the Helmo district. Since peaking in 1991, gold production has been falling, however, amounting to 146 tons in 1994, down from 177 tons in 1991.

Output totals for principal Canadian metals in 1994 (in metric tons) was: iron ore, 36.6 million; copper, 626 million; zinc, 984 million; uranium, 9,124; nickel, 196,868; molybdenum, 11,500; and lead, 172,000.

What are believed to be the world's largest deposits of asbestos are located in the eastern townships of Quebec. Asbestos production in 1994 amounted to 518,000 tons. Manitoba has probably the largest and richest reserve of potash (an ingredient in fertilizers and soaps) in the world. At the present rate of consumption it could probably supply all the world's needs for 1,000 years.

ECONOMY

The Canadian economy is the seventh largest among the western industrialized nations. The postwar period has seen a steady shift from the production of goods toward increased emphasis on services. Although no longer the foremost sector of the economy, agriculture is of major importance to the economy. Canada accounts for approximately 20% of the world's wheat trade. Canada is also the world's leading producer of newsprint and ranks among the leaders in other forestry products.

Differences in prosperity among the provinces increased during the 1980s, with the central provinces relatively robust, the western provinces suffering declines in growth because of lower prices for oil and other natural resources, and the Atlantic provinces depressed. By the second quarter of 1990, the economy had begun to decline, affected by a recession and the central bank's monetary policy. Recovery began in the second half of 1991, although the early 1990s were marked by continuing unemployment. The economy grew by 4.1% in 1994, by 2.35% in 1995, and by 2.7% in 1996. Unemployment remained high at 9.7% in 1996, but this was a drop from 11.2% in 1993.

INCOME

In 1995, Canada's gross national product (GNP) was $73.7 billion at current prices, or $19,020 per person. For the period 1985-95 the average inflation rate was 2.9%, resulting in a real growth rate in GNP of 0.4% per person.

INDUSTRY

The leading industrial areas are foods and beverages, transport equipment, petroleum and coal products, paper and paper products, primary metals, chemicals, fabricated metals, electrical products, and wood products. The value added in industrial production in 1994 amounted to c$81.4 billion.

Of the total manufacturing output, about half is concentrated in Ontario, which not only is the center of Canadian industry but also has the greatest industrial diversification. Some important industries operate there exclusively. Quebec ranks second in manufacturing production, accounting for more than 25% of the value of Canadian manufactured goods. British Columbia ranks third.

LABOR

Employment in 1994 was 13.3 million. There were 14.9 million in the total civilian labor force in 1995. Of those in civilian employment in 1994, 22% were in industry (producing 31% of the gross national product); 3.0% in agriculture (producing 3% of the gross national product); and 75% in services (producing 66% of the gross national product). In 1995, unemployment stood at 9.5%.

Cold weather and consumer buying habits cause some regular seasonal unemployment, but new techniques and materials are making winter construction work more possible, and both government and many industrial firms plan as much work as possible during the winter months.

At the beginning of 1994, labor organizations active in Canada reported a total membership of over 4 million. Federal and provincial laws set minimum standards for hours of work, wages, and other conditions of employment. Safety and health regulations and workers' disability compensation have been established by federal, provincial, and municipal legislation. Weekly earnings for the industrial aggregate averaged c$605.22 in 1995, up from c$501.08 in 1991.

FOREIGN TRADE

Canada's exports are highly diversified; the principal export groups are industrial goods, forestry products, mineral resources (with crude petroleum and natural gas increasingly important), and agricultural commodities.

Imports are heavily concentrated in the industrial sector, including machinery, transport equipment, basic manufactures, and consumer goods. In 1996, merchandise exports were at c$267.6 billion (up 5.4% from 1995) and merchandise imports were c$146.1 billion (up 3.4% from 1995).

The United States is by far Canada's leading trade partner. Canada exchanges raw materials such as crude petroleum and processed items such as paper for United States machinery, transportation and communications equipment, and agricultural items, such as citrus fruits.

In 1995, the United States accounted for 80.4% of Canada's exports and 66.7% of imports. In 1992, the United States, Canada, and Mexico signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which was ratified by all three countries the following year.

Besides the United States, Canada traded principally with European Community countries, Japan, and the United Kingdom and China in 1995.