LANGUAGE: Spanish; various Mayan languages; Carib

LOCATION: Guatemala

POPULATION: 10 million

PRONUNCIATION:

RELIGION: Roman Catholicism with ancient Mayan beliefs; Protestantism

Source Database: Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life

Table of Contents
CLOTHING | CULTURAL HERITAGE | EDUCATION | ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION | FAMILY LIFE | FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES | FOLKLORE | FOOD | FURTHER READINGS | HISTORICAL OVERVIEW | INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS | LANGUAGE | LIVING CONDITIONS | LOCATION AND HOMELAND | MAJOR HOLIDAYS | RELIGION | RITES OF PASSAGE | SOCIAL PROBLEMS | SOURCE CITATION | SPORTS | VIEW MULTIMEDIA FILE(S) | WORK

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

Guatemala is slightly larger than the US state of Tennessee. It is bounded by Mexico on the north and west, by the Pacific Ocean on the south, and by Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador on the east. Eastern Guatemala also has a small Caribbean Sea coastline. The southern half of the country is mountainous, except along the Pacific coast. Some 33 mountains are volcanic, and the area is also subject to earthquakes. The northern third of the country consists of lowland rain forest.

Guatemala had a population of about 10 million people in 1994, making it the most populous country in Central America. They were divided about evenly between Indians and ladinos, a term applied to those who have adopted the Spanish language, dress, and lifestyle, regardless of race. Ladinos may be of pure Indian ancestry but are more often Mestizos, people of mixed Indian and European descent. About 1% of the population are of purely European ancestry. Blacks, along the Caribbean coast, make up perhaps another 1% of the population.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

More than 1,000 years before the coming of the Spanish, the Mayas established a number of city-states in what is now Guatemala. The largest of these, Tikal, covered 26 sq km (10 sq mi) and included some 200 major stone structures, including high-rise temples and palaces. By AD 1000, however, the Mayan cities had been abandoned and it is said the majority of the indigenous population had moved to the highlands. Soon after Spanish troops conquered Mexico in 1521, they moved south and subdued the native inhabitants. For the next three centuries the captaincy-general of Guatemala was the center of government for most of Central America. The captaincy-general won its independence from Spain in 1821. Guatemala seceded from the resulting federation of the United Provinces of Central America in 1839.

José Rafael Carrera, a Conservative, ruled Guatemala from 1838 to 1871. Justo Rufino Barrios, a Liberal, ruled from 1873 to 1885. Under Barrios and later, many Indian communities lost their lands, which were developed into coffee and banana plantations. In 1954 the government, considered pro-Communist by the United States, was overthrown with help from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Leftist guerilla groups organized to oppose the right-wing military-dominated and US-backed governments that subsequently ruled the country. Between 1960 and 1996, some 100,000 people lost their lives as a consequence of the fighting between the army and the guerrillas. Many other Guatemalans fled to Mexico and the United States.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Native music developed from a blend of Spanish and Indian influences. But Guatemala is better known for its traditional dances, which are often a kind of musical drama that recalls a historical event with the use of costumes and masks. These are performed at fiestas in honor of the local saint. The Deer Dance symbolizes the struggle between humans and animals. The Dance of the Conquest recalls the victory of the Spanish over the Indians.

Tikal and other monumental sites are testimony to the architectural accomplishments of the Maya. The Spanish influence can be found in colonial-era churches, sculptures, and paintings. Guatemala's best-known 20th-century painter is Carlos Mérida.

The Maya had the most advanced system of writing in the Americas among indigenous peoples. A Spanish priest, Francisco Ximénez, translated the rarest and most sacred book of the Quiché, the Popol Vuh, in 1680. This work is a treasure- trove of Mayan beliefs and practices. Because of the heavy hand of the Inquisition, the first history of Guatemala, written by Antonio de Remesal and published in 1619, was ordered "thrown to the stables." Even Don Quixote had to be smuggled into the colony. Rafael Landival, a Jesuit, wrote the poem Rusticatio Mexicana while in exile in Italy. This was the outstanding Guatemalan work of the colonial era. Nineteenth-century authors include Jose Batres y Montúfar and José Milla y Vidaurre. Enrique Gómez Carillo (1873 -1927) was a novelist and poet. The novelist and poet Miguel Ángel Asturias received the Nobel Prize for literature in 1967.

FOLKLORE

Guatemala's folklore is based on Indian cultural beliefs as well as old traditions brought by the Spanish conquerors. According to Quiché legend, for example, the first four humans were made of corn paste into which the Heart of Heaven breathed life. To assure good growing weather before spring planting, the seed is blessed at a special planting. The night before the planting, the men burn incense in the fields and sprinkle the ground with a brew made from fermented sugarcane, while the women pray at home before lighted candles. In the morning the women go to the fields with food for the sowers and place their candles at points representing the four winds.

The shaman (Mayan Priest) is a man or woman credited with being able to mediate with the unknown forces that govern human destiny, to predict the future, and to cast spells. He or she is also a healer (curandero) who practices herbal medicine.

The Indians of Central America believe that every person has an animal counterpart called the nagual who shares his or her destiny. Tecún Umán, a heroic Quiché warrior who, according to legend, was slain by Pedro de Alvarado, the Spanish leader, had for his nagual the colorful quetzal, Guatemala's increasingly rare national bird.

Particular places serve as shrines for particular gods. The Indians of Alta Verapaz, for example, are careful when approaching a hot spring to leave kindling beside it for the god who boils the water. In return, it is hoped, the god will not cause fever by heating the Indian's blood.

CLOTHING

The clothing of many ladinos is similar to that of modern Westerners, but almost every Indian community has its own style of dress. Indeed, an individual's village can be identified by the design of the cloth. It is estimated that there are at least 325 major patterns in the traditional dress that is still everyday garb -particularly among women -in Indian villages. These are handwoven articles made on pre-Spanish looms or foot- powered treadle looms introduced by the Spanish.

However, traditional clothing is worn more frequently by women than men, and more often by poorer Guatemalans in general. Western-style dress is more frequent among people with a higher standing in their communities. Lately, secondhand clothing from the United States, sold at bargain prices, has become popular. It is not uncommon to see traditional garments worn together with a college tee-shirt.

The typical dress of Indian women usually includes a huipil, which is a smock-style blouse; a skirt with a belt; a tzute (scarf or headdress); and a rebozo (shawl). Men may wear brightly colored trousers and a shirt with a belt or sash, a tunic or vest, a jacket, a straw hat, a shoulder bag called a morral, and sandals (Indian women normally go barefoot). Most Indian men, however, now wear manufactured clothing largely indistinguishable from their ladino counterparts.

FOOD

Guatemalan food is generally simple and not highly spiced. Corn tortillas, rice, beans, tamales, and plantains are the staples. Tortillas and black beans are served at every meal. A classic method of preparing meats is to cook them in water before adding sauce or seasonings. An essential seasoning of Mayan foods is squash seeds toasted and ground to a powder. Coffee is lighter and more watery than the brew Americans and Europeans are used to drinking.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Pilgrims from all over Central America come to Esquipulas on 15 January to worship at the shrine of the Black Christ, a sculpted balsam-wood image 1.5 m (5 ft) high, whose dark color resembled the complexion of the Indians before smoke generated by candles and incense turned it black. A temple, completed in 1758, houses the effigy, which is girdled in white satin embroidered with gold and laden with jewels. Also important is the pilgrimage on 2 February to the village church in Chiantla, famous for its silver image of the Virgin Mary.

For size and scope, Antigua's Holy Week (late March or early April) pageantry is unrivaled in Latin America. Events reach a climax with a Passion procession on the morning of Good Friday. A bright carpet of flowers and dyed sawdust lines the route. Chichicastenango celebrates 21 December, the day of St. Thomas, with a week-long fiesta marked by ritual dances of the Quiché and the Palo Volador, in which costumed men dangle by ropes from a 18-m-high (60-ft-high) maypole.

The Garifuna of the Caribbean celebrate their arrival in Guatemala with Yuriman, a simulation of the first farm plantings, in Lívingston each 13 -15 May. This festival is accompanied by singing, dancing, and hand-clapping. Like the other nations of Central America (except Panama ), Guatemala celebrates 15 September as Independence Day to commemorate the region's declaration of independence from Spain in 1821.

LANGUAGE

Spanish is the official language of Guatemala. Guatemalan Spanish is carefully enunciated and formal, even old-fashioned at times, with an emphasis on politeness and respect. Some words are of Indian origin. Many Indians speak Spanish poorly or not at all. Indian men are more likely to know Spanish than are women, and younger people more often speak Spanish than do older ones. There are 21 Mayan languages spoken in Guatemala, the principal ones being Quiché, Cakchiquel, Kekchí, and Mam. Carib is spoken along the Caribbean coast by the Garifunas, or Black Caribs, the descendants of fugitive slaves and Carib Indians.

LIVING CONDITIONS

In 1990 it was estimated that the poorer half of the population was receiving only 60% of its daily minimum caloric requirements. The mortality rate for children up to age five is 68 deaths per 1,000 children. Gastrointestinal and respiratory ailments take a heavy toll because of poor sanitation as well as poor nutrition. In rural areas, few people have access to drinkable water.

Because of rural overpopulation, the urban areas have swelled with migrants, many of them in illegal squatter settlements. Peasants mostly live in two-room, dirt-floor adobe structures or ones that use poles for walls. The roofs are made of palm leaves, straw, or tiles. Their small farm plots may be several hours'walk away.

Guatemala's road network is not extensive and, especially in mountainous areas, the roads are seldom paved. Most people rely on secondhand buses -formerly US school buses -for more than purely local transportation. Automobiles range from old, patched-up Japanese models to the luxury cars of the elite.

RELIGION

Some 67% to 80% of all Guatemalans are Roman Catholic. Within this faith, however, the Indians have preserved ancient Mayan beliefs. Their gods, who govern aspects of life like weather and crops, are worshipped under the guise of saints; Jesus and Mary, for example, are identified with the Sun God and Moon Goddess, and the cross with the Four Winds of Heaven. Cofradías (brotherhoods), rather than Catholic priests, are in charge of the religious life of an Indian community. Fiestas are the major form of public worship and sometimes conform to the 260-day Mayan religious calendar. Worship is orthodox among ladinos, but routine church attendance is often not possible because of a shortage of priests. Most priests in Guatemala are foreigners.

Perhaps 25% to 33% of the population are Protestant. Protestant missionaries, generally with ties to organizations in the United States, have been very active in Guatemala since the 1880s. Both mainline denominations and evangelical or fundamentalist groups are represented. Protestants are critical of folk Christianity and especially deplore the drunkenness that accompanies fiestas.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

About 2% of the population owns some 70% of the cultivable land. About 65% of the original forest cover has been destroyed, and about 30% of the land is eroded or seriously degraded. Only 33% of the population has regular access to health services. Domestic violence occurs but receives little attention. The labor code makes legal strikes difficult, and women, usually found in low-wage jobs, are paid significantly less than are men.

WORK

Ladinos tend to become shopkeepers, government employees, or laborers in private industries. The fincas, or large plantations, employ both ladinos and Indians for seasonal labor during the harvest. The sizable part of the population outside the modern economy continues to till small plots for subsistence, supplemented by income from handicrafts and seasonal plantation work. Many migrants to the cities, unable to find employment, take to street vending. It was estimated in 1992 that 46% of the labor force was unemployed or underemployed. The minimum wage was under $3 a day in 1994.

EDUCATION

Education is free and compulsory between the ages of 7 and 13, but enforcement is lax in rural areas, and one out of every five children of those ages was not enrolled in school in 1991. Many do not complete the primary-school cycle because they must work to help their families. The adult literacy rate was only 55% in 1990. Indians are at a particular disadvantage since Spanish is not their mother tongue.

Six years of secondary school can lead either to university education or specialized training. There are six universities. Chief of these is the State University of San Carlos, in Guatemala City. The constitution guarantees it autonomy and not less than 5% of the national budget. The university, which charges no tuition, has more than 50,000 students, many of whom must work part-time while pursuing their studies. Most of the private universities are in Guatemala City, including the Francisco Marroquín University. The private Universidad Rural is based in Chimaltenango.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

In Hispanic countries, when people stop to greet each other there will probably be some physical contact as well as words exchanged. Both acquaintances and friends generally shake hands when meeting and parting. Men may pat each other on the back, and women often embrace and kiss each other on one or both cheeks. Men and women will generally do so only if they are relatives. When talking or simply standing or sitting in a public place, people tend to come closer to one another than in the United States. When talking, people may gesture more than in the United States and even touch the other person on the arm or shoulder for emphasis. Family and friends will drop in on each other, especially on Sundays and holidays. These are brief, informal stops.

RITES OF PASSAGE

In Guatemala's villages, both a midwife and a brujo attend a child's birth, the latter to pray for long life and good health and protection against the evil eye, which can be cast on children by a stranger or a blue-eyed person. A breech delivery or one with an umbilical cord around the neck is considered a sign of good fortune. Baptism is the only Church sacrament in which Indians normally partake. An attendant godmother and godfather are essential to the ceremony. Indian babies are carried on their mother's back and breast-fed whenever hungry. Children wear clothing identical to their parents and are put to work at an early age.

In conservative ladino society, group boy-girl activities begin at about age 14, but real dating does not begin until later. A girl's 15th birthday indicates that she has come of age and calls for a special celebration. A boy's coming of age is recognized when he turns 18. A young man still asks a girl's father for her hand in marriage. Engagements of several years are common.

Among Indians, although actual arranged marriages with no say by the prospective partners are rare, a youth's father may seek out a tertulero, or matchmaker, to find him a suitable bride -a girl under 16. Once an arrangement is reached, the young man provides a dowry. There is a betrothal feast and there may be a marriage ceremony performed by a village priest if available, followed by a feast.

At Indian funerals the Mayan Priest spins the coffin at the grave to fool the devil and point the deceased's spirit toward heaven. Yellow is the color of mourning, so yellow blossoms are hung in the form of a cross on the grave, with accompanying candles burning. Food is placed at the head of the grave for the spirit of the departed. Indians toll church bells for the dead to acquire merit with the gods.

FAMILY LIFE

Guatemala's families are close-knit and generally the only dependable source of help in a society where church and state have a limited impact on daily life. Among ladinos, the nuclear family of father, mother, and children is most common, but a moderately prosperous household often includes other relatives and servants or orphaned children. The extended family forms the basis of the Indian community. Indians rarely take mates outside their own linguistic group and village. Recently married couples typically live with the husband's parents.

Despite Guatemala's rapid population growth and the resulting division of land into ever-smaller plots, children are greatly desired, especially among Indians. During the late 1980s, the average number of births per woman completing her childbearing years was almost six. Ideally, a ladino woman does not work outside the home, but economic necessity has forced many to do so. Indian women tend gardens and household animals. Many earn cash by handicrafts or, in the city, domestic work.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Guatemala's handspun and woven textiles are among the finest in the world. Made by highland Indians, they display brilliant colors and intricate designs, both in the form of raw cloth and finished garments. Cotton, wool, and silk are the traditional fibers for clothing, although acrylics have been introduced. Blankets and rugs are also made from these fibers, while hats, mats, hammocks, and baskets are made with different types of cane and reed as well as fibers from the maguey cactus. Ceramics are produced both by pre-Conquest methods, molding clay by hand and using natural clays and dyes, and with the potter's wheel and glazes and enamels introduced from Spain. Jade jewelry dates from ancient times. Woodcrafted products include traditional masks, carved squash gourds, and colonial-style doors and furniture.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Fiestas continue to provide popular entertainment and to reflect much of the creative life of the people. They all include music and dance, eating and drinking, and fireworks. Cinemas, found only in the major cities, mostly play US films dubbed or subtitled in Spanish. Television fare includes dubbed US programs and variety shows and telenovelas (soap operas) imported from Mexico and Venezuela.

Guatemala is the heartland of marimba music. Almost every town has a marimba orchestra, which includes the accompaniment of a brass band, and no wedding is complete without marimba music. The repertoire includes many Mexican numbers. Indians employ other instruments for their rites, including the pre-Conquest drum and flute.

SPORTS

Soccer is a national passion, played even in the most traditional and remote Indian villages. Guatemala City has the largest soccer stadium in Central America.