CAPITALS: La Paz (administrative capital);Sucre (legal and judicial capital).

FLAG: The flag is a horizontal tricolor of red, yellow, and green stripes, representing the animal, mineral, and vegetable kingdoms, with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band.

ANTHEM: Himno Nacional, beginning "Bolivianos, el hado propicio coronó nuestros volos anhelos" ("Bolivians, propitious fate crowned our outcries of yearning").

MONETARY UNIT: The boliviano ( b) was introduced on 1 January 1987, replacing the peso at a rate of p1,000,000 = b1. There are coins of 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 cents and 1 boliviano and notes of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 200 bolivianos. b1 = $0.19286 (or $1 = b5.185).

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard, but some Spanish weights are still used in retail trade.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Labor Day, 1 May; National Festival, 5-7 August; Columbus Day, 12 October; All Saints' Day, 1 November; Christmas, 25 December. Movable holidays include Carnival, Ash Wednesday, Holy Thursday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, and Corpus Christi.

TIME: 8 am = noon GMT.

Source Database: Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations
Table of Contents
AGRICULTURE | ARMED FORCES | CLIMATE | DOMESTICATED ANIMALS | ECONOMY | EDUCATION | ENERGY AND POWER | ENVIRONMENT | ETHNIC GROUPS | FAMOUS BOLIVIANS | FISHING | FORESTRY | FURTHER READINGS | GOVERNMENT | HEALTH | HISTORY | HOUSING | INCOME | INDUSTRY | JUDICIAL SYSTEM | LABOR | LANGUAGES | LOCATION AND SIZE | MEDIA | MIGRATION | MINING | PLANTS AND ANIMALS | POLITICAL PARTIES | POPULATION | RELIGIONS | SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT | SOURCE CITATION | TOPOGRAPHY | TOURISM AND RECREATION | TRANSPORTATION | VIEW MULTIMEDIA FILE(S)

LOCATION AND SIZE

Situated in South America just north of the Tropic of Capricorn, Bolivia has a total area of 1,098,580 square kilometers (424,164 square miles), slightly less than three times the size of the state of Montana. Completely landlocked, Bolivia has a total boundary length of 6,743 kilometers (4,182 miles).

The capital city of Bolivia, La Paz, is located in the west-central part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Bolivia has three geographic zones: the Andean highlands in the west, running north to south; the moist slopes and valleys on the eastern side of the Andes, called the Yungas and Valles; and the eastern tropical lowland plains, or Oriente. In Bolivia, the Andes divide into two chains--the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Oriental--that make up about one-third of the country.

Between the two chains lies a broad sedimentary plateau about 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) above sea level, called the Altiplano, which contains about 28% of Bolivia's land area and more than half of its population. In the north of this plateau, astride the border with Peru, lies Lago (Lake) Titicaca, the highest navigable lake in the world at an altitude of more than 3,660 meters (12,000 feet).

GEOGRAPHIC PROFILE

Arable land: Land used for temporary crops, like meadows for mowing or pasture, gardens, and greenhouses. Permanent crops: Land cultivated with crops that occupy its use for long periods, such as cocoa, coffee, rubber, fruit and nut orchards, and vineyards. Permanent pastures: Land used permanently for forage crops. Forests: Land containing stands of trees. Other: Any land not specified, including built-on areas, roads, and barren land.

The measurements for precipitation and average temperature were taken at weather stations closest to the country's largest city. Precipitation and average temperature can vary significantly within a country, due to factors such as latitude, altitude, coastal proximity, and wind patterns.

CLIMATE

Although Bolivia lies entirely in the tropics, extreme differences in altitude and rainfall give it a great variety of climates. The mean annual temperature of La Paz, at 3,697 meters (12,130 feet), is about 8°c (46°f). That of Trinidad, in the eastern lowlands, is 26°c (79°f). Around Lake Titicaca, rainfall is adequate, but there is less than 5 centimeters (2 inches) a year in the extreme southwest. The fertile valleys in the Cordillera Oriental have a warmer, drier Mediterranean climate.

The Yungas and Valles have a semitropical, moist climate. Rainfall is heavy in the northeast. The lowland plain becomes drier to the south, until it reaches drought conditions near the Argentine border.

PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Because of the wide range in altitude, Bolivia has plants of every climatic zone, from arctic growth high in the mountains to tropical forests in the Amazon basin. On the high plateau above 3,050 meters (10,000 feet) grows a coarse bunch grass called ichu, used for pasture, thatching, and weaving mats. The Lake Titicaca region is believed to be the original home of the potato.

In the tropical forest, the quinine-producing quina tree grows, as does the Pará rubber tree. There are more than 2,000 species of hardwoods. Aromatic shrubs are common, as are vanilla, sarsaparilla, and saffron plants. Useful native plants include palms, sweet potatoes, manioc, peanuts, and an astonishing variety of fruits.

On the Altiplano, the most important animal is the llama, one of the most efficient carrier animals known. Alpaca are found there, too. In the tropical Amazon region are the puma, tapir, armadillo, sloth, peccary, capiguara (river hog), and ant bear, as well as several kinds of monkeys. Bird life is rich and varied.

ENVIRONMENT

The chief environmental problem in the densely populated Altiplano is soil erosion, resulting from poor cultivation methods and overgrazing. Almost 24% of the city dwellers and 70% of rural people do not have pure water. The main sources of water pollution are fertilizers, pesticides, and mining.

As of 1994, 21 mammals, 34 species of birds, 4 species of reptiles, and 1 species of fish were considered endangered.

HISTORY

Before AD 1300, there was a highly developed Tiahuanaco (native Amerindian) civilization. When this civilization went into decline, Quechua-speaking Incas conquered the region surrounding Lake Titicaca and colonized villages in most of what is now Bolivia. The Spanish explorer Francisco Pizarro led the Western conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532-33.

In 1545, silver was discovered in the Andean region of Bolivia, then called Alto Peru, or Upper Peru, at a mine named the Cerro Rico (Rich Hill) de Potosí. The mines continued to produce vast amounts of wealth for the Spanish Empire, and for years Potosí was the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. In 1776, the region was added to the Viceroyalty of La Plata, a group of Spanish possessions with its center at Buenos Aires.

Upper Peru gained its freedom after Simón Bolívar's 1924 liberation of Peru. Bolívar sent his young general, Antonio José de Sucre, to free Upper Peru. Upper Peru was formally proclaimed the Republic of Bolívar on 6 August 1825 (the name was soon changed to Bolivia).

Sucre was chosen as the first president in 1826, and the capital city, Chuquisaca, was renamed Sucre in his honor. He was succeeded by General Andrés de Santa Cruz, who conquered Peru in 1836 and formed the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation. In 1839, Chilean forces defeated and dissolved the confederation and ended the presidency of Santa Cruz.

A period of instability followed. The almost constant civil war slowed Bolivia's economic progress and resulted in the loss of much of its land. At the close of the War of the Pacific (1879-84), which pitted Chile against Bolivia and Peru, Chile seized what was then the Bolivian port of Antofagasta. Deprived of its only coastal territory, Bolivia was forever after a landlocked country.

After a silver boom in the late nineteenth century, silver production gave way to tin mining. The nation was controlled by a few wealthy mine and plantation owners, allied with various foreign interests, while the Amerindians, excluded from the system, found their lot unchanged after almost 400 years.

World War II (1939-45) brought further strains to Bolivia. As world demand skyrocketed, the tin market boomed, but working conditions in Bolivia's mines remained miserable and wages remained low. In December 1943, a coalition of the army and the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolutionario--MNR) engineered a successful takeover of the government. However, the tin market collapsed at the war's end, weakening the new government's power base. The new government, in turn, was overthrown and a conservative government favoring the wealthy mine and land owners was installed.

The MNR returned to power in the early 1950s, dominating Bolivian politics from 1952 to 1964. Its first government, led by Víctor Paz Estenssoro, made dramatic moves to transform Bolivian society. The tin holdings of the three dominant families were taken over by the government, and a comprehensive land reform program was begun, along with large-scale welfare and literacy programs. Industry was encouraged, and the search for oil deposits was hastened.

In addition, a new policy gave Amerindians the right to vote and tried to integrate the Amerindian community more fully into the national economy. The right to vote, previously restricted to literate Bolivian males (who constituted less than 10% of the population), was made universal for all Bolivians over 21.

After his initial term in office, Paz became more and more dictatorial, and divisions within the MNR worsened. After Paz tried to rig the presidential elections in June 1964, he was removed from office by a military takeover. For the next 20 years, a series of military and civilian governments ruled Bolivia.

In 1985, former prime minister Paz, now 77, was returned to office. Faced with runaway inflation, which reached an annual rate of 14,000% in August 1985, the two leading parties agreed to cooperate, allowing a comprehensive economic reform package to pass through the legislature. Inflation and interest rates fell and the economy stabilized.

More importantly, Paz got competing political parties to cooperate in support of a continuing democracy. Paz's successor, Jaime Paz Zamora, who took office in 1989, was able to hold together a coalition and serve a full four-year presidential term.

Following the 1993 elections, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada assumed the presidency. His vice president, Victor Hugo Cárdenas, is the first Amerindian in Bolivian history to hold that office. The administration began a reform program that included selling public enterprises. State enterprises that were privatized included the national railroad, the state-owned airline, and electricity generation facilities. In June 1997, General Hugo Banzer, the former dictator, won the presidential election and pledged to stop the privatization program.

MIGRATION

Aside from Spaniards during the colonial period, European immigration has been insignificant. Since the 1950s, migration to neighboring countries has increased. About 675,000 Bolivians were estimated to reside outside the country in the late 1980s, in search of employment and better economic opportunities. A number of Bolivian braceros (contract agricultural laborers) go to northwestern Argentina to work in rice and sugar harvests.

Within the country, migration is swelling the sparsely populated lowlands. High unemployment among agricultural laborers and miners has caused significant migration to the cities.

ARMED FORCES

As of 1995, armed strength totaled 33,500 men (army, 25,000; a navy for lake and river patrol, 4,500; air force, 4,000), and paramilitary police of 30,600. Defense expenditures in 1995 were $146 million.

GOVERNMENT

The constitution of 3 February 1967 provides for a representative democracy, with its government divided into an executive branch, a two-chamber legislature (consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate), and the judiciary. Bolivia is divided into nine administrative departments but there are no local legislatures.

In practice, the constitution has not been consistently observed. Military takeovers and states of siege have been frequent. Congress was dissolved by the armed forces from 1969-79 and again between 1980 and 1982. Between 1966 and 1978, no presidential elections were held.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court, the superior district courts in each department, and the local courts. The Supreme Court, which sits at Sucre, is divided into four chambers: two deal with civil cases, one with criminal cases, and one with administrative, mining, and social cases.

The district courts usually hear appeals from the local courts. There is also a separate national labor court.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Numerous parties and coalitions have formed and dissolved over the years, usually tied to the personalities of the various leaders.

The right-wing Democratic Nationalist Alliance (Alianza Democrática Nacionalista--ADN) is closely tied to President Hugo Banzer Suarez. After the June 1997 elections, the ADN formed a coalition government with the Movement of the Revolutionary Left (Movimiento de la Izquierda Revolucionaria--MIR), Civic Solidarity Union (UCS), and the far-right "Conscience of the Fatherland" party (CONDEPA).

The Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario--MNR) was originally a militant organization, but is now considered a left-of-center party.

TOURISM AND RECREATION

In 1994 there were 320,000 tourist arrivals in hotels and other establishments, of which 60% came from the Americas and 35% from Europe. There were 11,013 rooms in hotels and other facilities. Tourism receipts totaled $131 million in 1994.

La Paz and Sucre have many colonial churches and buildings, and there are Inca ruins on the islands of Lake Titicaca, which also offers opportunities for fishing and sailing. The world's highest ski run is located at Chacaltaya, and mountain climbing and hiking are available on the country's Andean peaks.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Social security coverage is compulsory for both salaried employees and rural workers. Those covered by the program receive medical, hospital, dental, and pharmaceutical care for themselves and their families. The government also provides old age pensions, survivors' benefits, maternity benefits, and family allowances.

Although women are guaranteed equal protection under the Constitution, in most cases, they earn less than men for doing similar work. In 1995 the government started a program to prevent and treat child abuse.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Estimates of the make-up of the Amerindian (native) population are Quechua, about 30% and Aymará, 25%. Cholos (Bolivians of mixed European and Amerindian lineage) make up another 25 to 30%, and those of wholly European background account for nearly all the rest. The distinction between Amerindian, cholo, and white has gradually become blurred, making these estimates somewhat subjective.

Other Amerindians include the Chiriguanos, Mojenos, Chiquitanos, and Sirionós. In all, Amerindians number about 100,000.

LANGUAGES

Spanish, Quechua, and Aymará are all official languages. About 40% of Bolivians speak Spanish as a mother tongue. Approximately 37% of the people still speak Quechua, and 24% speak Aymará, although an increasing number of Amerindians also speak Spanish.

RELIGIONS

The 1961 constitution abolished state support of the Roman Catholic Church, thus formally separating church and state. In 1993, an estimated 92.1% of the population was Roman Catholic. Most Amerindians combine their own religious symbols with Christian observance. An active Protestant minority totaled 335,000 when last counted in 1985. There were also about 65,900 tribal religionists, 2,800 Buddhists, and 600 Jews.

TRANSPORTATION

The shortage of transportation facilities is one of the most serious barriers to economic development. Railroads are single-track meter gauge, totaling 3,691 kilometers (2,293 miles) in 1995. Of a total of 46,311 kilometers (28,776 miles) of roads, about 4% were paved. In 1996, there were 547,000 motor vehicles, of which 357,000 were passenger cars, and 189,000 were commercial vehicles.

The hub of air traffic is El Alto airport near La Paz, the world's highest commercial airport.The other international airport is at Santa Cruz. Little use has been made of Bolivia's 10,000 kilometers (6,200 miles) of navigable waterways. Because Bolivia does not have access to the ocean, it has been granted port privileges at Antofagasta and Arica in Chile, at Mollendo in Peru, and at Santos in Brazil.

FAMOUS BOLIVIANS

Andrés de Santa Cruz (1792-1865), who considered himself the "Napoleon of the Andes," dominated the early years of the independent nation. Simón Patiño (1861-1947), the richest of the "big three" tin barons, began his career as a loan collector and acquired his first mine by chance. He later became one of the world's wealthiest men.

Bolivia's outstanding literary figure is Gabriel René-Moreno (1836-1909), a historian, sociologist, and literary critic. The highly original poet and philosopher Franz Tamayo (1879-1956), although belonging to the landed aristocracy, was a champion of the downtrodden Amerindian. Tamayo was elected president in 1935, but an army revolt prevented him from taking power.

EDUCATION

Bolivia's estimated adult illiteracy rate was 17% (males, 10%; and females, 25%). Primary education, which lasts for eight years, is compulsory and free of charge. Secondary education lasts for another four years. In 1994, the government's expenses for education amounted to 5.4% of Bolivia's gross national product.

Bolivia has eight state universities, one in each departmental capital except Cobija. There are also two private universities. The University of San Francisco Xavier in Sucre, dating from 1624, is one of the oldest universities in Latin America.

HEALTH

Health conditions have been notably poor, owing to poor hygiene and an insufficient number of doctors and hospitals, especially in rural areas. The most common disorders are acute respiratory diseases, tuberculosis, malaria, hepatitis, and Chagas' disease. Malnutrition is a serious and growing problem, with 13% of children under age five considered malnourished during 1989-95. Life expectancy in 1995 was estimated at 61 years.

In 1992, 63% of the population had access to health care.

HOUSING

As of 1988, 67% of all housing units were detached private dwellings, 25% were detached rooms for rent with common facilities, 5% were huts, and 2% were apartments. Only about 50% of the population had access to piped indoor water, and about 26% lived in dwellings with adequate sanitary facilities.

POPULATION

The total population as of the last national census in 1992 was 6.4 million. The estimated population in 1998 was 7.8 million. The projected population for the year 2005 was 8.9 million. The population density in 1998 was 7.1 persons per square kilometer (18.4 per square mile). Three-fourths of the total population lives on the Altiplano or in the western mountain valleys. The southeastern lowlands are sparsely populated. In 1995, La Paz, the administrative capital, had an estimated population of 1.2 million. Sucre, the legal and judicial capital, had 152,000. Santa Cruz, the next largest city, had a population of 800,000.

MEDIA

There were 129 AMradio stations in 1995 and 43 television stations. A government-owned television station broadcasts from La Paz. In 1994, Bolivia had an estimated 4.9 million radio receivers and 820,000 television sets. Bolivia had about 234,400 telephones in 1995, and over 150 Internet hosts in 1996.

In 1995 there were 16 daily newspapers. The most important La Paz daily newspapers, with their estimated circulations in 1995, are El Diario, 50,000; Hoy, 20,000; and Última Hora, 20,000. Important provincial dailies are Los Tiempos (Cochabamba), with 19,000 circulation; and El Mundo (Santa Cruz), with 10,000.

AGRICULTURE

An estimated 5% of Bolivia's land area was under cultivation in 1996. Another 24% was permanent pasture. Agricultural development has been handicapped by extremely low productivity, poor distribution of the population in relation to productive land, and a lack of transportation facilities.

The most important crops are potatoes, corn, barley, quinoa (a milletlike grain), habas (broad beans), wheat, alfalfa, and oca (a tuber). The potato is the main staple; dehydrated and frozen to form chuño or tunta, it keeps indefinitely. The most profitable crop in the Yungas is coca, which is chewed by the local population and from which cocaine is extracted. In 1995, an estimated 69,145 tons of coca leaf were produced. Bolivia's coca leaf production contributed 3.4% to its gross domestic product (GDP) and accounted for 15-20% of world production.

Coffee, cacao, bananas, yucca, and aji (a widely used chili pepper) are also important. In the fertile irrigated valleys, the important crops are corn, wheat, barley, vegetables, alfalfa, and oats. The Tarija area is famous for grapes, olives, and fruit.

DOMESTICATED ANIMALS

In 1995 there were an estimated 6 million head of cattle, 7.9 million sheep, 1.5 million goats, 2.4 million hogs, 631,000 donkeys, and 322,000 horses. Poultry numbered 56 million in 1995. The main cattle ranching area is in the tropical northeast.

The Amerindians of the high plateau depend on the llama because it can carry loads at any altitude and provides leather, meat, and dung fuel. Leading animal product exports are hides, alpaca and vicuña wool, and chinchilla fur. Bolivia had about 2 million llamas in 1995.

ENERGY AND POWER

Total electric power output in 1994 was 2.4 billion kilowatt hours, of which 59% was hydroelectric. In 1995, the total average daily production of crude oil was 30,000 barrels. An estimated 3 billion cubic meters (106 billion cubic feet) of natural gas was produced in 1994, with 33% of it sold to Argentina.

FISHING

Fishing is a minor activity in Bolivia. A few varieties of fish are caught in Lake Titicaca by centuries-old methods and sent to La Paz. The catch was estimated at 5,970 tons in 1994.

FORESTRY

Bolivia is potentially one of the world's most important forestry nations. Trees are mostly evergreens and deciduous hardwoods. There are more than 2,000 species of tropical hardwoods of excellent quality, such as mahogany, jacaranda, rosewood, palo de balsa, quina, ironwood, colo, and cedar. Sawmills are few, however, and the almost total lack of transportation facilities has made harvesting expensive. Roundwood production in 1995 was only 2.7 million cubic meters (3.5 million cubic yards), up from 1.6 million cubic meters (2.1 million cubic yards) in 1991. About 50% of Bolivia's exports consist of wood and wood products. Bolivia is one of South America's leading rubber exporting countries.

MINING

Bolivia is the fourth largest tin-producing nation, after China, Brazil, and Indonesia. Mineral exports made up about 46% of the nation's exports in 1994. Total tin mine production in Bolivia was 16,200 tons in 1994.

Silver, zinc, tungsten, bismuth, lead, copper, gold, asbestos, and other metals are also exported.

ECONOMY

As of 1996, Bolivia was in its second decade of democratic rule and its tenth consecutive year of economic expansion. Market reforms are firmly in place, investment is growing steadily, and inflation is under control. Real gross domestic product grew by 4.5% in 1995. Growth was led by construction, manufacturing, and services. The fastest growing sectors of the economy were communications, and electricity and water, both of which had large amounts of foreign investment from privatization. Inflation was reduced from the amazing 14,000% in 1985 to only 12.5% in 1995.

INCOME

In 1995, Bolivia's gross national product (GNP) was $5.9 billion at current prices, or $830 per person. During 1985-95, the real growth rate of the GNP per person was 1.7%.

INDUSTRY

Industrial development has been severely restricted by political instability, the small domestic market, the uncertain supply of raw materials, and the lack of technically trained labor. Over one-half of output is in nondurable consumer goods--food, beverages, tobacco, and coffee. Handicrafts and hydrocarbons account for much of the remainder. Manufacturing grew by 3.8% in 1995.

LABOR

Total employment was 1.3 million in 1995. About 25% of employment was in industry and 30% in agriculture.

Practically the entire nonagricultural labor force, as well as part of the peasantry, is unionized. The Central Bolivian Workers' Organization (Central Obrera Boliviana--COB) is the central labor federation, to which nearly all unions belong.

FOREIGN TRADE

Bolivia depends primarily on its mineral exports, especially tin and natural gas. Tin exports, however, have been gradually decreasing since 1946. In 1994, export earnings were $985.1 million while imports reached $1.1 billion. Bolivia's major export markets are the United States, the United Kingdom, Peru, and Argentina. Imports come mainly from the United States, Brazil, Japan, and Argentina.